Franklin Pierce - 14th President of the United States

Franklin Pierce - 14th President of the United States Franklin Pierces Childhood and Education: Pierce was born on November 23, 1804 in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. His father was politically active having first fought in the Revolutionary War and then served in various offices in New Hampshire including being Governor of the State. Pierce went to a local school and two academies before attending Bowdoin College in Maine. He studied with both Nathaniel Hawthorne and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. He graduated fifth in his class and then studied law. He was admitted to the bar in 1827. Family Ties: Pierce was the son of  Benjamin Pierce, a Public Official, and  Anna Kendrick. His mother was prone to depression. He had four brothers, two sisters, and one half-sister.  On  November 19, 1834, he married  Jane Means Appleton. the daughter of a Congregationalist Minister. Together, they had  three sons all of whom died by the age of twelve. The youngest, Benjamin, died in a train accident soon after Pierce was elected president. Franklin Pierces Career Before the Presidency: Franklin Pierce began practicing law before being elected as a member of the New Hampshire legislature 1829-33. He then became a U.S. Representative from 1833-37 and then Senator from 1837-42. He resigned from the Senate to practice law. He joined the military in 1846-8 to fight in the Mexican War. Becoming the President: He was nominated as the candidate for the Democratic Party in 1852. He ran against war hero Winfield Scott. The main issue was how to deal with slavery, appease or oppose the South. The Whigs were divided in support of Scott. Pierce won with 254 out of 296 electoral votes. Events and Accomplishments of Franklin Pierces Presidency: In 1853, the U.S. bought a stretch of land now part of Arizona and New Mexico as part of the  Gadsden Purchase. In 1854, the  Kansas-Nebraska Act  passed allowing settlers in Kansas and Nebraska territories to decide for themselves whether slavery would be allowed. This is known as  popular sovereignty. Pierce supported this bill which caused great dissension and much fighting in the territories. One issue that caused a lot of criticism against Pierce was the Ostend Manifesto. This was a document published in the New York Herald which stated that if Spain was not willing to sell Cuba to the U.S., the United States would consider taking aggressive action to get it. As can be seen, Pierces presidency was met with much criticism and dissension. Therefore, he was not renominated to run in 1856. Post-Presidential Period: Pierce retired to New Hampshire and then traveled to Europe and the Bahamas. He opposed secession while at the same time speaking in favor of the South. Overall, though, he was antiwar and many called him a traitor. He died on October 8, 1869 in Concord, New Hampshire. Historical Significance: Pierce was president at a critical time in American History. The country was becoming more polarized into Northern and Southern interests. The issue of slavery became once again front and center with the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Obviously, the nation was headed towards a confrontation, and Pierces actions did little to stop that downward slide.

Battle of Moscow - World War II - Operation Barbarossa

Battle of Moscow - World War II - Operation Barbarossa The Battle of Moscow was fought Oct. 2, 1941, to Jan. 7, 1942, during World War II (1939-1945). After months of attacks and counterattacks as German forces attempted to overrun Moscow, Soviet reinforcements and a severe Russian winter took a toll on German forces, helping to thwart Germanys plans and leaving its forces exhausted and demoralized. Fast Facts: Battle of Moscow Dates: Oct. 2, 1941, to Jan. 7, 1942, during World War II (1939-1945)ï » ¿Soviet Union Armies and Commanders:Marshal Georgy ZhukovMarshal Aleksandr Vasilevsky1.25 million menGerman Armies and Commanders:Field Marshal Fedor von BockCol Gen. Heinz GuderianField Marshal Albert Kesselring1 million men Background On June 22, 1941, German forces launched Operation Barbarossa and invaded the Soviet Union. The Germans had hoped to commence the operation in May but were delayed by the campaign in the Balkans and Greece. Opening the Eastern Front, they quickly overwhelmed Soviet forces and made large gains. Driving east, Field Marshal Fedor von Bocks Army Group Center won the Battle of BiaÅ‚ystok-Minsk in June, shattering the Soviet Western Front and killing or capturing over 340,000 Soviet troops. Crossing the Dnieper River, the Germans began a protracted battle for Smolensk. Despite encircling the defenders and crushing three Soviet armies, Bock was delayed into September before he could resume his advance. Though the road to Moscow was largely open, Bock was forced to order forces south to aid in the capture of Kiev. This was due to Adolf Hitlers unwillingness to continue fighting large battles of encirclement which, though successful, had failed to break the Soviet resistance. Instead, he sought to destroy the Soviet Unions economic base by capturing Leningrad and the Caucasus oil fields. Among those directed against Kiev was Col. Gen. Heinz Guderians Panzergruppe 2. Believing that Moscow was more important, Guderian protested the decision but was overruled. By supporting Army Group Souths Kiev operations, Bocks timetable was further delayed. It wasnt until Oct. 2, with the fall rains setting in, that Army Group Center was able to launch Operation Typhoon, the code name for Bocks Moscow offensive. The goal was to capture the Soviet capital before the harsh Russian winter began. Bocks Plan To accomplish this goal, Bock intended to employ the 2nd, 4th, and 9th armies, supported by Panzer Groups 2, 3, and 4. Air cover would be provided by the Luftwaffes Luftflotte 2. The combined force numbered just short of 2 million men, 1,700 tanks, and 14,000 artillery pieces. Plans for Operation Typhoon called for a double-pincer movement against the Soviet Western and Reserve fronts near Vyazma while a second force moved to capture Bryansk to the south. If these maneuvers were successful, German forces would encircle Moscow and compel Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to make peace. Though reasonably sound on paper, plans for Operation Typhoon failed to account for the fact that German forces were battered after several months of campaigning and their supply lines were having difficulty getting goods to the front. Guderian later noted that his forces were short on fuel from the outset of the campaign. Soviet Preparations Aware of the threat to Moscow, the Soviets began constructing a series of defensive lines in front of the city. The first of these stretched between Rzhev, Vyazma, and Bryansk, while a second, double-line was built between Kalinin and Kaluga dubbed the Mozhaisk defense line. To protect Moscow proper, the capitals citizens were drafted to construct three lines of fortifications around the city. While Soviet manpower was initially stretched thin, reinforcements were being brought west from the Far East as intelligence suggested that Japan didnt pose an immediate threat. The two nations had signed a neutrality back in April 1941. Early German Successes Storming forward, two German panzer groups (3rd and 4th) quickly made gains near Vyazma and encircled the 19th, 20th, 24th, and 32nd Soviet armies on Oct. 10. Rather than surrender, the four Soviet armies tenaciously continued the fight, slowing the German advance and forcing Bock to divert troops to aid in reducing the pocket. Ultimately the German commander had to commit 28 divisions to this fight, allowing the remnants of the Soviet Western and Reserve fronts to fall back to the Mozhaisk defense line and reinforcements to rush forward, largely to support the Soviet 5th, 16th, 43rd, and 49th armies. To the south, Guderians panzers (tanks) rapidly encircled the entire Bryansk Front. Linking with the German 2nd Army, they captured Orel and Bryansk by Oct. 6. The encircled Soviet forces, 3rd and 13th armies, continued the fight, eventually escaping east. The initial German operations, however, captured over 500,000 Soviet soldiers. On Oct. 7, the first snow of the season fell and soon melted, turning the roads to mud and severely hampering German operations. Grinding forward, Bocks troops turned back numerous Soviet counterattacks and reached the Mozhaisk defenses on Oct. 10. That same day, Stalin recalled Marshal Georgy Zhukov from the Siege of Leningrad and directed him to oversee the defense of Moscow. Assuming command, he focused Soviet manpower in the Mozhaisk line. Wearing Down the Germans Outnumbered, Zhukov deployed his men at key points in the line at Volokolamsk, Mozhaisk, Maloyaroslavets, and Kaluga. Resuming his advance on Oct. 13, Bock sought to avoid the bulk of the Soviet defenses by moving against Kalinin in the north and Kaluga and Tula in the south. While the first two fell quickly, the Soviets succeeded in holding Tula. After frontal attacks captured Mozhaisk and Maloyaroslavets on Oct. 18 and subsequent German advances, Zhukov was forced to fall back behind the Nara River. Though the Germans made gains, their forces were badly worn down and plagued by logistical issues. While German troops lacked appropriate winter clothing, they also took losses to the new T-34 tank, which was superior to their Panzer IVs. By Nov. 15, the ground had frozen and mud ceased to be an issue. Seeking to end the campaign, Bock directed the 3rd and 4th panzer armies to encircle Moscow from the north, while Guderian moved around the city from the south. The two forces were to link up at Noginsk, 20 miles east of Moscow. German forces were slowed by Soviet defenses but succeeded in taking Klin on Nov. 24 and four days later crossed the Moscow-Volga Canal before being pushed back. In the south, Guderian bypassed Tula and took Stalinogorsk on Nov. 22. His offensive was checked by the Soviets near Kashira a few days later. With both prongs of his pincer movement bogged down, Bock launched a frontal assault at Naro-Fominsk on Dec. 1. After four days of heavy fighting, it was defeated. On Dec. 2, a German reconnaissance unit reached Khimki, only five miles from Moscow. This marked the farthest German advance. With temperatures reaching -50 F and still lacking winter equipment, the Germans had to halt their offensives. Soviets Strike Back By Dec. 5, Zhukov had been heavily reinforced by divisions from Siberia and the Far East. Possessing a reserve of 58 divisions, he unleashed a counteroffensive to push the Germans back from Moscow. The beginning of the attack coincided with Hitler ordering German forces to assume a defensive stance. Unable to organize a solid defense in their advance positions, the Germans were forced from Kalinin on Dec. 7, and the Soviets moved to envelop the 3rd Panzer Army at Klin. This failed and the Soviets advanced on Rzhev. In the south, Soviet forces relieved pressure on Tula on Dec. 16. Two days later, Bock was sacked in favor of Field Marshal Gà ¼nther von Kluge, due largely to Hitlers anger over German troops conducting a strategic retreat against his wishes. The Russians were aided by extreme cold and poor weather that minimized the Luftwaffes operations. As the weather improved in late December and early January, the Luftwaffe began intensive bombing in support of German ground forces This slowed the enemy advances and by Jan. 7, the Soviet counteroffensive came to an end. Zhukov had pushed the Germans 60 to 160 miles from Moscow. Aftermath The failure of German forces at Moscow doomed Germany to fighting a prolonged struggle on the Eastern Front. This part of the war would consume the vast majority of Germanys manpower and resources for the remainder of the conflict. Casualties for the Battle of Moscow are debated, but estimates suggest German losses of 248,000 to 400,000 and Soviet losses of 650,000 to 1,280,000. Slowly building strength, the Soviets would turn the tide of the war at the Battle of Stalingrad in late 1942 and early 1943.

Reaction paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Reaction - Research Paper Example In the case of Hose, media had an active role, knocking down individual voices of concern, and spreading words contradictory to the reality, igniting hatred in the public minds. I was taken aback by the fact that though the wife of the killed revealed in investigation that Hose committed the murder in self-protection and that there was no rape, no one including the media or government gave attention to the same. I feel that the main reason for this extreme aggression and shameless activities is the self-interest of the media to offer the Whites with the kind of news they loved to hear about the Blacks. As the chapter reveals, so many Blacks met their end almost in the same way. To sum up, I would like to say that government, media, and religion are the only forces powerful enough to make mass movements. Once they are prejudiced, the whole society remains prejudiced. Once this happens, moral values and rational thinking disappear from the minds of even the so-called educated and civilized

Leveraging IT for Business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Leveraging IT for Business - Assignment Example The benefits of offshoring are numerous to the company that engages in it. These include the reduction of the cost of doing business. Businesses have been able to reduce costs especially on the salaries that it pays out as well as other benefits. This is of benefit to the organization as it enables the organization to continue to function without unnecessary expense added to it (Click and Duening 2005). This is because most of the outsourcing destinations like China, India and other countries offer cheaper labour to these companies that outsource to them. Another benefit of outsourcing is the competitive advantage that it gives to those companies that use it. This is gained both in the local as well as in the international scene. This is due to the lower cost of business operations and the proximity to the available market for the finished goods. On the other hand, the difficulties of outsourcing a business are also present and must be put into consideration. These include the propor tionality of the projects availed and the provider of the BPO to fulfil the obligations. As the size of the provider goes up, so is the risk. At the same time, there is the matter of trust between the provider and recipient. The people or companies that are the recipients of the services that are being outsourced may be unknown. This means that it is a testing venture when a company, for example, far away, Australia decides to entrust its business to a little-known group like in India. The end result may be a poor show of the BPO which may be a great threat to the survival of the company. Another challenge to outsourcing is that it has the capacity to cause brain drain. According to unions within Australia, the outsourcing has driven a number of nationals from Australia to other countries in search of better terms of employment (Switzer 2006). This is because when companies outsource, they reduce the number of local jobs that they have. This is nature of unemployment that drives the job seekers elsewhere to try and survive. Outsourcings will, therefore, cost the country a lot of its highly productive labour.  

Chylothorax and Superior Vena Cava Syndrome Case Study

Chylothorax and Superior Vena Cava Syndrome Case Study Title: Chylothorax and Superior Vena Cava Syndrome as the Initial Presentation of Non small Cell Lung Cancer, which was Successfully Resolved by Systemic Chemotherapy We define a case report of 35 year old male presented with shortness of breath, dyspnea, heaviness of left chest wall, engorgement of vein in left side chest wall and upper left neck, swelling in left side of the neck, chest pain and cough. At the time of admission, an abnormal round opacity presented in left upper lung lobe and histology shows non-small cell carcinoma with superior vena cava syndrome was diagnosed. MSCT scan report heterogeneous enhancing large soft tissue density mass lesion of size approximately 96 100 mm seen in left upper lobe extending in to whole mediastinum encasing all major vessel including arch of aorta, descending aorta, trachea, esophagus, pulmonary trunk,M PA and all major neck vessels origin. Lesion causing significant luminal narrowing of left main bronchus. Lesion causing obliteration of left brachio-cephalic.Left moderate pleural effusion seen. Heterogeneous attenuated right lung field is seen due to mosaic perfusion. Left sided thoracocentesis done milky white fluid drained from pleural cavity. Ultrasonography guided FNAC left lung done is suggestive of non-small cell carcinoma. Superior vena cava syndrome associated with lung carcinoma with massive chylothorax. Patient received cisplatin and gemcitabine chemotherapy. After chemotherapy taken chylothorax resolution almost completely. Key words: Lung cancer; squamous cell carcinoma; chylothorax; superior vena cava syndrome INTRODUCTION Lung cancer in India commonly accounts 80-85% of non-small cell carcinoma. In Acharya tulsi regional cancer treatment and research institute Bikaner hospital squamous cell carcinoma interpretation for 15% of all cases of NSCLC according to registry. In advanced lung cancer chemotherapy play main role in quality of life and survival. Chylothorax initial symptom of NSCLC is rare but pleural effusion is commonly seen. Chylothorax is mostly seen after complication of lung surgery. But in this case chylothorax is initial presentation with NSCLC with SVC. Incidence of chylothorax is .3-2.4%.[3-5]. Few report of this disorder in current year[2]. We report this case of NSCLC with initial appearance with SVC and chylothorax which resolved almost entirely with chemotherapy CASE REPORT A case report of 35 year old male presented with shortness of breath, dyspnea, heaviness of left chest wall, engorgement of vein in left side chest wall and upper left neck, swelling in left side of the neck, chest pain and cough. He is heavy smoker for 13 year and also chronic alcohol drinker. Patient vital signs at the time of admission pulse rate is 88 per minute, respiratory rate is 26 per minute, BP is 128/84 and temperature in normal limit. On auscultation breathe sound decreased in left side of chest. At the time of admission, an abnormal round opacity presented in left upper lung lobe and histology shows non-small cell carcinoma with superior vena cava syndrome was diagnosed. MSCT scan report heterogeneous enhancing large soft tissue density mass lesion of size approximately 96 100 mm seen in left upper lobe extending in to whole mediastinum encasing all major vessel including arch of aorta,descending aorta, trachea, esophagus, pulmonary trunk,M PA and all major neck vessels origin. Lesion causing significant luminal narrowing of left main bronchus. Lesion causing obliteration of left brachio-cephalic. Left moderate pleural effusion seen.Heterogeneous attenuated right lung field is seen due to mosaic perfusion. Multiple para-esophageal,perigastric, supra-clavicular,superior mediastinum, pre, paratracheal, subcarinal AP window lymphadenopathy are seen,larger measuring approx. 18 mm size. Left sided thoracocentesis done milky white fluid drained from pleural cavity. Ultrasonography guided FNAC left lung done is suggestive of non-small cell carcinoma. Superior vena cava syndrome associated with lung carcinoma with massive chylothorax. Patient received cisplatin and paclitaxil chemotherapy. cisplatin given D1 and D2 schedule. After two cycle chemotherapy taken chylothorax resolve almost completely.Laboratory investigation shows serum creatinine e 1.1 mg /dl, albumin 3.2 mg/dl, total cholesterol 193 mg/dl, serum; triglyceride, 93 mg/dl, LDH is 425 IU/l. thoracocentesis done and 2000 ml milky white coloured fluid drained. Milky fluid biochemistry done and shows triglyceride, 867 mg/dl; l actate dehydrogenase, 332 IU/l; and carcinoembryonic antigen, 6.16 ng/ml.The cytological analysis of fluid revealed no malignant cells. Intercostal tube inserted and fluid is drained and symptom is improved. The clinical stage was T3N2aM0 stage IIIb. Therefore, SCC of the lung complicated by chylothorax and SVCS was diagnosed. . Chemotherapy with paclitaxel (175 mg/m2) and cisplatin (75 mg/m2) was administered on days 1, and cisplatin give in two days in divided dose respectively of six cycle repeat 21-day. The dyspnea and shortness of breath improved after two cycle of chemotherapy and amount of milky fluid drained is gradually tapered in intercostal tube after chemotherapy given. After five cycles chemotherapy patient symptoms improved and neck swelling is disappear and intercostal drained is 230 ml/day so intercostal tube come out and remaining one cycles is given. After 6 cycle complete again CECT chest revealed tumor size significantly decreases and also pleural fluid almost di sappear but superior vena cava symptoms is minimally improved . Then subsequently, the patient put another chemotherapy with gemcitabine and carboplatin, and radiotherapy is given to chest wall 30 gy 300cGy per fraction total 10 fraction in 2 weeks, but the tumor eventually progressed. Discussion The relationship between lung cancer and chylothorax may occur after compression of tumor to thoracic duct so increase pressure to duct and ruptured [6]. Secondly in obstruction in superior vena cava so venous pressure is increased significantly so leakage of chyle from thoracic duct to pleural cavity [7-9]. Another Couse of chylothorax is side effect of radiotherapy because after radiotherapy fibrosis is there and diminishing of lymph circulation [10-13]. This complication of radiation treatment is also observed in many disease like Hodgkin lymphoma (mantle field technique), squamous cell carcinoma in esophagus, breast carcinoma and also lung carcinoma[ 10,11, 12, 13, ]. With out lung surgery chylothorax is rare but this case present chylothorax without surgery. In current year 3 case reported with non small cell carcinoma[2,10,14-16].table 1 shows patient have chylothorax with clinical manifestation and resolve after management. In this table include our case report. The three case report series have 2 male and one female and median age af all three case was 47 yrs. All case non small cell carcinoma sub group is squamous cell carcinoma. Dahlbalk et al.[17] shows squamous cell carcinoma of lung cancer present with thorasic duct fluid in pleural cavity and nodular depositation. All case presented with right side lung carcinoma. Pleural fluid cytology present wih malignant cell. Main dominant feature in case is chylothorax and its present in mainly right pleural space. Treatment of chylothorax is mainly frequently repeated aspiration of pleural fluid, low fatty diet, intercostal tube drainage, and pleurodesis with chemical substance. [6,18] surgical management of chylothorax is thorasic duct ligation and pieuroperitonial shunt are mainly used in when milky coulred fluid is more than 550 ml or more then continues 14 days. In Dahlbalk et al study mainly two case successfully treated with chemical pleurodesis. One patient any intervention not done because general condition is very poor give only paliiative treatment. If chylothorax associated with cloot in brachiocephalic vein or subclavian and jugular vein is treated with anticoagulant therapy. Beghetti et al[8]. studied resistant case of chylothorax associated with superior vena cava syndrome manage with chemotherapy. Our case usual taken four cycle chemotherapy and mostly resoved chylothorax . Thrombus in superior vena cava are correct with treatment of underlying couse. Symptoms of superior vena cava syndrome is extremlly improved with two cycle chemotherapy. It is revealing of a promising response to chemotherapy Table 1 three patients of non-small cell lung cancer presented with Chylothorax Abbreviations: SCC=squamous cell carcinoma; ; RML=right middle lung; RT= radiotherapy; C/T=chemotherapy; NA=not available

In Electricity Generation, an Electric Generator Is a Device

Electric generator In  electricity generation, an  electric generator  is a device that converts  mechanical energy  to  electrical energy. A generator forces  electric charge  (usually carried by  electrons) to flow through an external  electrical circuit. It is analogous to a  water pump, which causes water to flow (but does not create water). The  source of mechanical energy  may be a reciprocating or turbine  steam engine, water falling through a  turbine or waterwheel, an  internal combustion engine, a  wind turbine, a hand  crank,  compressed air  or any other source of mechanical energy.The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an  electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. In fact many motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity, and very frequently make acceptable generators. ———-Historical developments Before the connection between  magne tism  and  electricity  was discovered,  electrostatic generators  were invented that used  electrostaticprinciples. These generated very high  voltages  and low  currents.They operated by using moving  electrically charged  belts, plates and disks to carry charge to a high potential electrode. The charge was generated using either of two mechanisms: * Electrostatic induction * The  triboelectric effect, where the contact between two insulators leaves them charged. Because of their inefficiency and the difficulty of  insulating  machines producing very high voltages, electrostatic generators had low power ratings and were never used for generation of commercially significant quantities of electric power.The  Wimshurst machine  and  Van de Graaff generator  are examples of these machines that have survived. Faraday's disk In the years of 1831–1832,  Michael Faraday  discovered the operating principle of electromagnetic generators. The pr inciple, later calledFaraday's law, is that an  electromotive force  is generated in an electrical conductor that encircles a varying  magnetic flux. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the  Faraday disk, a type of  homopolar generator, using a  copper  disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe  magnet. It produced a small DC voltage.This design was inefficient due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions outside the influence of the magnetic field. This counterflow limits the power output to the pickup wires and induces waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction.Another disadvantage was that the output volta ge was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher more useful voltages. Since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs. Dynamo The  dynamo  was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry.The dynamo uses  electromagnetic  principles to convert mechanical rotation intopulsed DC  through the use of a  commutator. The first dynamo was built by  Hippolyte Pixii  in 1832. Through a series of accidental discoveries, the dynamo became the source of many later inventions, including the DC  electric motor, the AC  alternator, the AC  synchronous motor, and the  rotary converter. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field.On small machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils. Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now nearly universal use of  alternating current  for power distribution and  solid state  electronic AC to DC power conversion. But before the principles of AC were discovered, very large direct-current dynamos were the only means of power generation and distribution.Now power generation dynamos are mostly a curiosity. Alternator Without a  commutator, a dynamo becomes an  alternator, which is a  synchronous singly fed generator. When used to feed anelectric power grid, an alternator must always operate at a constant speed that is precisely synchronized to the electrical frequency of the power grid. A D C generator can operate at any speed within mechanical limits, but always outputs direct current. Typical alternators use a rotating field winding excited with direct current, and a stationary (stator) winding that produces alternating current.Since the rotor field only requires a tiny fraction of the power generated by the machine, the brushes for the field contact can be relatively small. In the case of a brushless exciter, no brushes are used at all and the rotor shaft carries rectifiers to excite the main field winding. MHD generator Main article:  MHD generator A magnetohydrodynamic generator directly extracts electric power from moving hot gases through a magnetic field, without the use of rotating electromagnetic machinery. MHD generators were originally developed because the output of a plasma MHD generator is a flame, well able to heat the boilers of a  steam  power plant.The first practical design was the AVCO Mk. 25, developed in 1965. The U. S. government funded su bstantial development, culminating in a 25 MW demonstration plant in 1987. In the  Soviet Union  from 1972 until the late 1980s, the MHD plant U 25 was in regular commercial operation on the Moscow power system with a rating of 25 MW, the largest MHD plant rating in the world at that time. [2]  MHD generators operated as a  topping cycle  are currently (2007) less efficient than combined-cycle  gas turbines. ————————————————- Terminology The two main parts of a generator or motor can be described in either echanical or electrical terms. Mechanical: * Rotor: The rotating part of an  electrical machine * Stator: The stationary part of an electrical machine Electrical: * Armature: The power-producing component of an electrical machine. In a generator, alternator, or dynamo the armature windings generate the electric current. The armature can be on either the rot or or the stator. * Field: The magnetic field component of an electrical machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either electromagnets or permanent magnets mounted on either the rotor or the stator.Because power transferred into the field circuit is much less than in the armature circuit, AC generators nearly always have the field winding on the rotor and the stator as the armature winding. Only a small amount of field current must be transferred to the moving rotor, using  slip rings. Direct current machines (dynamos) require a  commutator  on the rotating shaft to convert the  alternating current  produced by the armature to  direct current, so the armature winding is on the rotor of the machine. ————————————————- ExcitationAn electric generator or electric motor that uses field coils rather than permanent magnets requires a current to be present in the field coils for the device to be able to work. If the field coils are not powered, the rotor in a generator can spin without producing any usable electrical energy, while the rotor of a motor may not spin at all. Smaller generators are sometimes  self-excited, which means the field coils are powered by the current produced by the generator itself. The field coils are connected in series or parallel with the armature winding.When the generator first starts to turn, the small amount of  remanent magnetism  present in the iron core provides a magnetic field to get it started, generating a small current in the armature. This flows through the field coils, creating a larger magnetic field which generates a larger armature current. This â€Å"bootstrap† process continues until the magnetic field in the core levels off due to  saturation  and the generator reaches a steady state power output. Very large power station generators often utilize a separate smaller generator to excite the field coils of the larger.In the event of a severe widespread  power outage  where  islanding  of power stations has occurred, the stations may need to perform a  black start  to excite the fields of their largest generators, in order to restore customer power service. ————————————————- Equivalent circuit The equivalent circuit of a generator and load is shown in the diagram to the right. The generator's  VG  and  RG  parameters can be determined by measuring the winding resistance (corrected to operating temperature), and measuring the open-circuit and loaded voltage for a defined current load. ———————————————— [edit]Vehicle-mounted generators Early motor vehicles until about the 1960s tended to use D C generators with electromechanical regulators. These have now been replaced byalternators  with built-in  rectifier  circuits, which are less costly and lighter for equivalent output. Moreover, the power output of a DC generator is proportional to rotational speed, whereas the power output of an alternator is independent of rotational speed. As a result, the charging output of an alternator at engine idle speed can be much greater than that of a DC generator.Automotive alternators power the electrical systems on the vehicle and recharge the  battery  after starting. Rated output will typically be in the range 50-100 A at 12 V, depending on the designed electrical load within the vehicle. Some cars now have electrically powered  steering assistance  and  air conditioning, which places a high load on the electrical system. Large commercial vehicles are more likely to use 24 V to give sufficient power at the  starter motor  to turn over a largediesel engine.Vehicle alternators do not use permanent magnets and are typically only 50-60% efficient over a wide speed range. [4]Motorcycle alternators often use permanent magnet  stators  made with  rare earth  magnets, since they can be made smaller and lighter than other types. See also  hybrid vehicle. Some of the smallest generators commonly found power  bicycle lights. These tend to be 0. 5 ampere, permanent-magnet alternators supplying 3-6 W at 6 V or 12 V. Being powered by the rider, efficiency is at a premium, so these may incorporate  rare-earth magnets  and are designed and manufactured with great precision.Nevertheless, the maximum efficiency is only around 80% for the best of these generators—60% is more typical—due in part to the rolling friction at the  tyre–generator  interface from poor alignment, the small size of the generator, bearing losses and cheap design. The use of permanent magnets means that efficiency falls even further at high speed s because the magnetic field strength cannot be controlled in any way. Hub dynamos  remedy many of these flaws since they are internal to the bicycle hub and do not require an interface between the generator and tyre. Until recently, these generators have been expensive and hard to find.Major bicycle component manufacturers like Shimano and SRAM have only just entered this market. However, significant gains can be expected in future as cycling becomes more mainstream transportation and LED technology allows brighter lighting at the reduced current these generators are capable of providing. Sailing yachts may use a water or wind powered generator to trickle-charge the batteries. A small  propeller,  wind turbine  or  impeller  is connected to a low-power alternator and rectifier to supply currents of up to 12 A at typical cruising speeds. Still smaller generators are used in  micropower  applications. ————————â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€ Engine-generator An  engine-generator  is the combination of an electrical generator and an  engine  (prime mover) mounted together to form a single piece of self-contained equipment. The engines used are usually piston engines, but gas turbines can also be used. Many different versions are available – ranging from very small portable  petrol  powered sets to large turbine installations. ————————————————- Human powered electrical generators A generator can also be driven by human muscle power (for instance, in field radio station equipment).Human powered direct current generators are commercially available, and have been the project of some  DIY  enthusiasts. Typically operated by means of pedal power, a converted bicycle trainer, or a foot pump, such generators can be practically used to charge batteries, and in some cases are designed with an integral inverter. The average adult could generate about 125-200 watts on a pedal powered generator, but at a power of 200 W, a typical healthy human will reach complete exhaustion and fail to produce any more power after approximately 1. 3 hours. 6]Portable radio receivers with a crank are made to reduce battery purchase requirements, see  clockwork radio. During the mid 20th century, pedal powered radios were used throughout the Australian outback, to provide schooling,(school of the air) medical and other needs in remote stations and towns. ————————————————- Linear electric generator In the simplest form of linear electric generator, a sliding  magnet  moves back and forth through a  solenoid  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ a spool of copper wire. Analternating current  is induced in the loops of wire by  Faraday's law o f induction  each time the magnet slides through.This type of generator is used in the  Faraday flashlight. Larger linear electricity generators are used in  wave power  schemes. ————————————————- Tachogenerator Tachogenerators are frequently used to power  tachometers  to measure the speeds of electric motors, engines, and the equipment they power. Generators generate voltage roughly proportional to shaft speed. With precise construction and design, generators can be built to produce very precise voltages for certain ranges of shaft speeds

Health Is Not A Singular Concept Essay - 1249 Words

With almost any visit to a doctor the question will come up, â€Å"Have you been eating healthy?† Everyone would like to think so or at least impress the doctor by saying so, but the term â€Å"health† may contradict the stereotypical simple answer of eating fruit and vegetables and working out. In fact, doctors may even have the wrong impressions on health when giving their patients advice. Over three articles, different authors have shared their views on health, what it means, and how it affects our society. From these, I comprised my own definition for health. Health is not a singular concept. Rather, it affects an entire society, allowing everyone to access food filled with the necessary nutrients to sustain life. This definition though has no use unless it is able to be shared with large populations. Therefore, education and ease of implementation are the most critical parts of the definition of health because they allow the American citizens to put the values of h ealth into practice. From the arguments, the authors vary in their abilities to make convincing arguments based on how well their health plans are defined. The first author, Michael Pollan, establishes health as a societal term. He desires to create a healthy, utopian society by changing the way food is produced. 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